Disney Corporation Losses EuroDisney Paris

Disney Corporation Losses EuroDisney Paris Cultural Euro Disney The word ‘management originated in America and ever since assumptions have been made about the universal acceptability and success of their business practices. There are a number of international ventures which have failed miserably due to Americans not considering the cultural aspects when entering into business in a new country. Euro Disney is a perfect example of the failure of American business processes in another country. The primary aim of this article is to explain how Euro Disney suffered the costs of cultural miscalculations. Geert Hofstedes work on culture has served as the theoretical basis of this article. His dimensions of culture have been used to explain differences in American and French cultures the problems that occurred at Euro Disney. American businesses make assumptions about the transferability of their business, management, marketing, economic and structural models of organizing which frequently fail to take into consideration cultural differences. An example of the consequences of such an approach to intercultural business practice can be found in the Disney Corporations recent European venture, now called Disneyland, Paris. Lack of cultural sensitivity and the negative infiltration strategy used by the Disney Corporation resulted in a great loss of time, money and reputation for which the corporation has only recently begun to compensate. It is the primary thesis of this article that the initial losses experienced by the Disney Corporation may have been prevented if only its representatives had known then what they know now: simply put, that organizations are not distinct, separate entities capable of functioning outside their physical, social and cultural environments. That insight, of course, calls for a different approach to international business, one which begins with the most basic aspect of human organizations, namely effective, meaningful, communicative interactions between people. As international business is becoming critically important in this world of globalization, so is the need to understand cultures, cross cultural psychology and people across nations. There is a lot of focus on cultural studies and plenty of research is done in this area. Yet, there is a lot of scope for further studies due to the gaps in the research. Today there are several models which help understand how people from different nations are expected to act; the one by Geert Hofstede has become the most influential (Hong, Zhang Stump 2007, p. 60) The cultural dimensions by Geert Hofstede have served as the specific theoretical framework for this study. Although there are many criticisms to the Hofsteds model and his dimensions yet there is no other study that compares so many other national cultures in so much detail. Simply this is the best there is. (Mead chapter 2: pg 51) With the advancements in communication and technology, the physical distance between countries is diminishing (Angur et al. , 1994; Jandt, 1995; Samovar and Potter, 1995). This physical distance is not the only thing that needs to be bridged in order to when practicing international commerce. Hofstedes dimensions reflect a nations value system. From further reading into this dissertation have tried to show how American business management tends to assume that they have the best business people that lead to them having the best business practices. While they may work very successfully in their or cultural setting, they do not work across borders. Importance of the study: Scope of the study: Why did you choose this topic? There are many studies that have been conducted in the area of cross cultural psychology, but none that have tried to connect the problems faced at Euro-Disney to Hofstedes dimensions. These dimensions have served as the specific theoretical framework for this study. Purpose, what are we trying to do These dimensions reflect a nations value system. Power distance and Uncertainty Avoidance affects how an organization is structured and how it functions. The two main problems that an organization can face are How to distribute power, and How to avoid uncertainty. Through this research, have tried to show how these two factors were taken for granted at Euro Disney. Furthermore, this research aims at studying the implications of the four dimensions on the working of MNCs and How will it help others and how can they use it for further research My work is a sincere effort to contribute to cultural literature. I hope it proves to be beneficial for further research studies. Overview of the study: Chapter 3 (Case of Euro Disney): This chapter describes all the stages of the research process in carrying out the present study. In particular this chapter gives a clear definition of the research method employed including sampling and data analysis. Chapter 2 (Literature review): This chapter will begin by outlining the existing literature on the concepts of brands, brand image, private brands and consumers perceptions toward private brands. Also in an attempt to meet the main research objective, the other areas (sub-objectives of this research study) such as  consumers attitudes preferences, brand loyalty, brand awareness toward private brands and positioning strategies of private brands have been rigorously discussed, which will provide full support to this research study. Chapter 4 (Discussion): This chapter discusses the results of the research, in particular, presenting statements made by informants with regards to themes that emerged from the transcripts. The chapter ends with a summary taking into account the exploratory nature of the research, and the importance of insight. Chapter 5 (Conclusion Recommendations): This chapter deals the conclusion of the present research study. It will be presented in light of research findings from Chapter 4. By referring to existing literature the discussion will highlight major findings in conjunction to identity development. At the end of the chapter, recommendations for further research will be given. Literature Review As Americans, the word â€Å"Euro† is believed to mean glamorous or exciting. For  Europeans it turned out to be a term they associated with business, currency, and  commerce. Renaming the park â€Å"Disneyland Paris† was a way of identifying it with one of the most romantic and exciting cities in the world (Eisner). Culture 500-700 Layers of culture 200 Cultural studies Cross cultural management 500-600 Importance of hrm in a cross cultural context International Business and importance of CCM Importance of culture in a international context 500 Theoretical background : Hofstedes diemsions of culture 1300 Case 1100 Reasons 1000 Discussion :using hotsedes dimensions explaining differences cross continents and cultures 2000 Conclusion 600-700 limitations of the study, limitations of hofsteds model American business leaders often assume that physical distance is the only gulf that needs to be bridged in international commerce. (473 pg1. last line) As a matter of fact bridging this gap is just one of the steps in international business. It is much more complicated and a number of factors need to be kept in mind. According to Adler (1986:13)in 473 it is the lack of academic interrogations by cultural scholars that has lead to ‘American parochialism Culture Culture is an umbrella word that encompasses a whole set of implicit, widely shared beliefs, traditions, values and expectations that characterize a particular group of people(Consumer behaviour in travel and tourism By Abraham Pizam, Yoel Mansfeld, p393). There are as many definitions of culture as there are people who have tried to define it. While some phrase it in terms of ‘metal programs others define it as the characteristics a person possesses. Hofstede (1994) defines culture as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another (p. 180). While according to Kroeber and Parsons, culture is transmitted and created content and patterns of values, ideas and other symbolically meaningful systems as factor in the shaping of human behaviour and the artifacts produced through behaviour(pdf 473 page 2) According to Schein culture is ‘A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. Organizational Culture Leadership by Edgar H Schein October 1996. According to Schein Culture exists at three levels, artifacts, exposed values and basic assumptions. Pizam (1993) also believes that there are levels of culture in the society. Firms and organizations are a part of the society/system and thus culture has an impact on them. Pizam argues that organizations are culture-bound, rather than being culture-free (Pizam, 1993: p. 219)-MMp2 Today there is growing importance of culture in cross border interactions. The role of human resources is very crucial as well. Effective human resource decisions and cultural sensitivity form two pillars for the success of an international business venture. The phrase ‘Cross cultural management was first coined by †¦in the year†¦. There are examples of companies who failed due to HRs ignorance and cultural miscalculations. Theoretical background:- Hofstedes Dimensions Cultural dimensions by halls,trompenars, hofstedes, globe study. Although there are many criticisms to the Hofsteds model and his dimensions yet there is no other study that compares so many other national cultures in so much detail . Simply this is the best there is. ( Mead chapter 2: pg 51) As international business is becoming critically important in this world of globalization, so is the need to understand cultures and people across nations. There is a lot of focus on cultural studies and plenty of research is done in this area still there is a lot of scope for further studies due to gaps in research. Today there are several models which help understand how people from different nations are expected to act, the one by Geert Hofstede has become the most influential (Hong, Zhang Stump 2007, p. 60) Hofstedes Dimensions of national culture- Power Distance Index (PDI): Large versus Small power distance The basis for this dimension is the fact that inequality exists at all levels and areas of the society. Inequality exists in areas such as wealth, social status, power and prestige. The word ‘power distance is taken from the work of Mulder (Reference hofstede p71). According to Mulders Power Distance Reduction theory, subordinated try to reduce the gap in power between them and their superiors. On the other hand the superiors try to maintain or increase the power distance. The PDI norm deals with the desirability or undesirability of dependence versus independence in society (Hofstede p. 93). Power distance is described as the degree to which there is unequal distribution of power in a society. This is accepted by the members of a society, organizations and nations which are less or more powerful. Behaviour of members of such institution is affected by the degree of power they posses. A high power distance index is characterized by hierarchical orders, close supervision, autocratic decision making and unequal distribution of power. Everybody has a place in the system which needs no clarification or justification. According to Hofstedes dimensions, Malaysia has the highest score on power distance (104) thus implying that the management would use a top-down information flow and there would be autocratic and paternalistic decision making. In a low PDI society, subordinates with the senior management together make decisions and have strong work ethics. It is characterised by equal distribution of power. Sweden is low on PDI (31)Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV) It deals with how members of a society view themselves compared to the rest of the society and is measured from completely collective (0) to completely individualistic (100). Individualism stands for a preference for a loosely knit social framework in society wherein individuals are supposed to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Collectivism, on the other hand, stands for a preference for a tightly knit social framework in which individuals can expect their relatives, clan, or other in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (it will be clear that the word collectivism is not used here to describe any particular political system). Hofstedes own definition is:Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between the individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout peoples lifetimes continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. † Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 76 The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among individuals: an extremely fundamental issue, regarding all societies in the world. It relates to peoples self-concept: T or we Thus, typical traits of countries scoring high on individualism is a frequent use of the word I (in comparison to emitting it, like in Spanish), tendency to live in small households and the expectation on people to have personal opinions on most matters. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were USA (91), Australia (90) and Great Britain (89) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Guatemala (6), Ecuador (8) and Panama (11) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, pp. 78-79). Masculinity (MAS) versus Femininity Masculinity stands for a preference in society for achievement, heroism,assertiveness, and material success. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak, and the quality of life. Hofstedes definition goes as follows; â€Å"A society is called masculine when emotional gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap; both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. †Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 120 Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS) is somewhat unluckily named, since the name tends to give people associations with highly political matters although the dimension doesnt deal with those. A better name might have been Gender role stability, since this is what the dimension actually deals with. This fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the way in which a society allocates social (as opposed to biological) roles to the sexes. Some societies strive for maximum social differentiation between the sexes. The norm is then that men are given the more outgoing, assertive roles and women the caring, nurturing roles. As in all societies most institutions are populated by men. Such maximum-social-differentiation societies will permeate their institutions with an assertive mentality. Such societies become performance societies evident even from the values of their women. these societies are referred to as masculine. (In the English language, male and female are used for the biological distinctions between the sexes; masculine and feminine for the social distinction. A man can be feminine, but he cannot be female. ) Other societies strive for minimal social differentiation between the sexes. This means that some women can take assertive roles if they want to but especially that some men can take relationship-oriented, modest, caring roles if they want to. Even in these societies, most institutions are populated by men (maybe slightly less than in masculine societies). The minimum-social-differentiation societies in comparison with their opposite, the maximum-social-differentiation societies, will permeate their institutions with a caring, quality-of-life orientated mentality. Such societies become welfare societies in which caring for all members, even the weakest, is an important goat for men as well as women. such societies are referred to as feminine. Masculine and feminine are relative qualifications: they express the relative frequency of values which in principle are present in both types of societies. The fact that even modern societies can be differentiated on the basis of the way they allocate their social sex role is not surprising in the light of anthropological research on non-literate, traditional societies in which the social sex role allocation is always one of the essential variables. Like the Individualism-Collectivism dimension, the Masculinity-Femininity dimension relates to peoples self-concept: who am l and what is my task in life? MAS is the only dimension where there are systematic differences between the biological genders in how they answer. The difference is correlated with two factors; age (older people tend to score more on the feminine side) and how masculine the country is overall (in feminine cultures both genders tend to score equally, whereas men score much higher than women in masculine cultures) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). Masculinity is represented by the high end of the scale. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were Japan (95), Austria (79) and Venezuela (73) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Sweden (5), Norway (8) and the Netherlands (14). (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, pp. 120-121). Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Uncertainty Avoidance is the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. This feeling leads them to beliefs promising certainty and to maintaining institutions protecting conformity. Strong Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant towards deviant persons and ideas. They try to minimize the possibility of unstructured situations (situations that are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual) by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; there can only be one Truth and we have it. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain a more relaxed atmosphere in which practice counts more than principles and deviance is more easily tolerated. They are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions The UAI deals with how people within a given culture handle anxiety. It needs to be stressed that UAI is not the same as risk avoidance risk is focused on something specific whereas UAI deals with the unspecific general. The definition of UAI is â€Å"the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations† (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 167). The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is how a society reacts on the fact that time only runs one way and that the future is unknown: whether it tries to control the future or to let it happen. Like Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance has consequences for the way people build their institutions and organizations. Typical of countries with high UAI is a need for written and unwritten rules. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were Greece (112), Portugal (104) and Guatemala (101) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Singapore (8), Jamaica (13) and Denmark (23) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus Short-Term Orientation This fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars. It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting ones face. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B. C. ; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage. The dimension was defined by Hofstede as:â€Å" Long-term orientation (LTO) stands for the fostering of virtues oriented toward future rewards in particular, perseverance and thrift. Its opposite pole, short-term orientation, stands for, the fostering of virtues related to the past and present in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of â€Å"face†, and fulfilling social obligations. † Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 210 Cultures that score high on LTO tend to have so called Confucian values and not surprisingly the three highest scoring countries in the Bond-Hofstede study were China (118), Hong Kong (96) and Taiwan (87). The lowest scoring countries were Pakistan (0), Nigeria (16) and the Philippines (19) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). The case of Euro Disney Its first of Walt Disneys theme park, Disneyland, opened in Anaheim, California, in 1955. The Anaheim Park was an instantaneous success. The success story repeated itself with the opening of the theme park in Florida in 1970s, and with Tokyo Disneyland in Japan in 1983. Japans success made the corporates believe that they knew everything about opening a theme park in another country and making it a success. So, in 1992, they turned to Paris, the self-proclaimed capital of European high culture and style. Paris was chosen out of 200 locations around the world because of its demographics and the subsidies Walt Disney was offered by the French government. The Greater Paris area  was a high-density population zone (over 10 million) with people who had a relatively high level of disposable income. It also has the ability to attract substantial number of tourists. There was sufficient land available to meet the demand of the park and necessary supply of water and electricity was economical. The French government was very enthusiastic about getting Disney to Paris because they believed that the project would create 30,000 French jobs. They also gave the company more than $1 billion in various incentives. The Walt Disney had tasted nothing but success until 1992. From its very inception, Euro-Disney faced a number of problems. First was the allegation that Euro-Disney was an assault on the French culture. The cause: lack of cultural sensitivity. People looked at it as a symbol of American clichà ©s. The French framers even blocked the entrance with their tractors on the day of its opening. It was evident that the human resource department had done everything possible to ignore the aspects of cultural awareness and had misunderstood the French laws. They overlooked the traditions and habits of the French people when strategizing the park and how it would operate. The ethnocentric recruiting practice was one of their biggest mistakes. If a company follows ethnocentric hiring practices, the employees of a multinational company who are from the home country will be given preference. Following this, Euro-Disney filled all important positions with employees from the home America. The chairman of Euro Disney was an American who was said to have strong ties with France. What they did not realize was the fact that because he had strong ties with France did not mean he thought like the French. Because of this, they went on to implement Euro-Disney without much consideration to local culture. They filed to credit the local employees for their contribution to the initial planning process. Recognizing performance is the basis for building an affinity to the workplace and a sense of belonging. When operating in a culturally different environment, it is important that a company ‘act globally, but think locally. This was Disneys biggest mistake. They refused to acknowledge the fact that Europe and USA were both ‘Western cultures, but starkly different in their cultures. The theme parks in America did not serve any alcohol, but for the French, serving a glass of wine with lunch was a given. While the French culture is feminine in nature, the American is Masculine. Disney assumed that Europeans would not take breakfast and so they downsized the operation, but surprisingly Europeans did want breakfast. More surprising was the fact that did not want the typical French breakfast. They wanted bacon and eggs! Another big problem was the while Disney was successful in hitting the planned 9 million visitors a year mark, the visitors didnt stay for as long as expected. Most stayed for a day or two as opposed to the four to five days that Disney had hoped for. Europeans thought of theme parks as a full day excursion and not as a weekend destination. The company had spent billions of dollars building the luxurious hotels but because people opted for day excursions, the occupancy levels at the hotels were always low. Because of this, Euro-Disneyland had cumulative losses of $2 billion at the end of 1994[1]. Almost everything that Walt Disney had projected for Euro-Disney was the complete opposite of the reality in Europe. A puzzle of errors: miscalculating everything! Here are the factors that led to the downfall of Euro-Disney from the very start. I have discussed these in detail as we move further into the dissertation. Still beset by high costs and low attendances, Euro Disney will find it hard to hit its target of breakeven by the end of September 1996. Costs in the year were reduced by FF 500m by introducing more flexible labour agreements (more part-timers, increased job sharing and the use of more students in the peak season) as well as outsourcing contracts in the hotel operation. But the company admits that the lions share of cost reductions has now been realized. Now it hopes attendances are rising. . . Getting people to spend more once they are at the park might be more difficult. Euro Disney is pinning its hopes on economic recovery in Europe. Itll have to start paying interest, management fees and royalties again in five years time. Management will not say whether itll be able to cope then. 1 â€Å"Euro Disney,† Financial Times Lex column, 30 October 1996(14ED) 1. Miscalculation of drinking habits. Misunderstanding French drinking habits was a serious problem faced by Euro Disney. The management decided to continue with their policy of not serving alcohol in their theme park. Though it worked well in other places but the same did not hold true for Euro Disney. It rather proved to be disastrous because a French meal is incomplete without a wine. Wine is an essential part of the French Culture and is famous all over the world. This miscalculation became a cause of astonishment and consequently the company had to change its policy and serve alcohol. 2. Misunderstanding of breakfast and food norms. Disneys fault of ignoring the cultural differences in food made them commit another blunder. Disney believed that like Americans French would also prefer snacks and hence they downsized their restaurants. This proved to be a wrong decision because French preferred to sit down and eat complete meals rather than carrying away snacks in their hand like Americans. In fact, the data shows that they were trying to serve 2,500 breakfasts in a 350-seat restaurant at some of the hotels. Further, guests wanted bacon and eggs rather than just coffee and croissants (Burgoyne, 1995). This difference between the companys thinking and the actual French culture lead to long lines in front of the restaurants and on top of it when French were denied wine it complicated the matter even further and on the whole French did not have a pleasant â€Å"Disney experience†. 3. Misunderstanding of vacation habits. The Walt Disneys thinking of Americanize European habits put them into another trouble. The company miscalculated the vacation time because the Europeans preferred few longer holidays in comparison with the Americans who took several short breaks. So the companys theory of Americanizing brought loss to them. 4. Miscalculation of per-capita spending. Insufficient market research lead to miscalculation of the per capita spending by the visitors at the park. While the Americans and Japanese who never left the park empty handed, the Europeans did. The European visitors wanted to spend more time on the rides rather than shopping for food and souvenirs which resulted in lower expected revenue. As a matter of Fact spending was about 12% less than predicted. [ ] 5. Miscalculation of transportation preferences. There was a big miscalculation in the transport preferences which was again due to the non- understanding of the differences in the American and the European culture. While availability of boats, trams and trains proved to be beneficial  to carry visitors in America from their hotels to the park but with the Europeans this was not the case. Most of the Europeans preferred to walk . Also, as per the calculation it was assumed that most of the Europeans would travel by their own vehicles and hence a lot of parking space was allotted for the cars. Whereas most of the Europeans came by buses and bicycles and the facilities for the bus drivers to park their buses and the rest came out be inadequate and as a result the company was forced to reduce the space for parking lots and provide more space for the buses and the bicycles. 6. Misunderstanding of French labor laws. 7. Violation of French labor law. 8. Miscalculation of risk factor 9. Incorrect global staffing policies and hr orientations :Ethnocentric and polycentric 2. Misunderstanding French traditions and habits: celebrating Halloween instead of French festivals. 3. Nationalistic sentiments of  French people: Change in name from Euro Disney to Disneyland Paris 4. Staffing and training problems 5. Rigid Disney dress code 6. Operational errors 7. Labour costs 8. Labour disputes 9. communication problems 10. cultural operational issues Power distance  · Incorrect global staffing policies and hr orientations: Ethnocentric and polycentric The French were confused when Disney appointed mostly American-born managers into the front-line supervisory positions at Euro Disneyland many of whom were not fluent in the French language. Individualism  · Rigid Disney dress code  · threatening highly individualistic French cultural traditions Individualism is the cultural dimension that measures to what extent people to look after themselves and their immediate family members only Americas individualism score of 91 is the highest in the world. Frances score of 71 is also high, 65% more than t Disney Corporation Losses EuroDisney Paris Disney Corporation Losses EuroDisney Paris Cultural Euro Disney The word ‘management originated in America and ever since assumptions have been made about the universal acceptability and success of their business practices. There are a number of international ventures which have failed miserably due to Americans not considering the cultural aspects when entering into business in a new country. Euro Disney is a perfect example of the failure of American business processes in another country. The primary aim of this article is to explain how Euro Disney suffered the costs of cultural miscalculations. Geert Hofstedes work on culture has served as the theoretical basis of this article. His dimensions of culture have been used to explain differences in American and French cultures the problems that occurred at Euro Disney. American businesses make assumptions about the transferability of their business, management, marketing, economic and structural models of organizing which frequently fail to take into consideration cultural differences. An example of the consequences of such an approach to intercultural business practice can be found in the Disney Corporations recent European venture, now called Disneyland, Paris. Lack of cultural sensitivity and the negative infiltration strategy used by the Disney Corporation resulted in a great loss of time, money and reputation for which the corporation has only recently begun to compensate. It is the primary thesis of this article that the initial losses experienced by the Disney Corporation may have been prevented if only its representatives had known then what they know now: simply put, that organizations are not distinct, separate entities capable of functioning outside their physical, social and cultural environments. That insight, of course, calls for a different approach to international business, one which begins with the most basic aspect of human organizations, namely effective, meaningful, communicative interactions between people. As international business is becoming critically important in this world of globalization, so is the need to understand cultures, cross cultural psychology and people across nations. There is a lot of focus on cultural studies and plenty of research is done in this area. Yet, there is a lot of scope for further studies due to the gaps in the research. Today there are several models which help understand how people from different nations are expected to act; the one by Geert Hofstede has become the most influential (Hong, Zhang Stump 2007, p. 60) The cultural dimensions by Geert Hofstede have served as the specific theoretical framework for this study. Although there are many criticisms to the Hofsteds model and his dimensions yet there is no other study that compares so many other national cultures in so much detail. Simply this is the best there is. (Mead chapter 2: pg 51) With the advancements in communication and technology, the physical distance between countries is diminishing (Angur et al. , 1994; Jandt, 1995; Samovar and Potter, 1995). This physical distance is not the only thing that needs to be bridged in order to when practicing international commerce. Hofstedes dimensions reflect a nations value system. From further reading into this dissertation have tried to show how American business management tends to assume that they have the best business people that lead to them having the best business practices. While they may work very successfully in their or cultural setting, they do not work across borders. Importance of the study: Scope of the study: Why did you choose this topic? There are many studies that have been conducted in the area of cross cultural psychology, but none that have tried to connect the problems faced at Euro-Disney to Hofstedes dimensions. These dimensions have served as the specific theoretical framework for this study. Purpose, what are we trying to do These dimensions reflect a nations value system. Power distance and Uncertainty Avoidance affects how an organization is structured and how it functions. The two main problems that an organization can face are How to distribute power, and How to avoid uncertainty. Through this research, have tried to show how these two factors were taken for granted at Euro Disney. Furthermore, this research aims at studying the implications of the four dimensions on the working of MNCs and How will it help others and how can they use it for further research My work is a sincere effort to contribute to cultural literature. I hope it proves to be beneficial for further research studies. Overview of the study: Chapter 3 (Case of Euro Disney): This chapter describes all the stages of the research process in carrying out the present study. In particular this chapter gives a clear definition of the research method employed including sampling and data analysis. Chapter 2 (Literature review): This chapter will begin by outlining the existing literature on the concepts of brands, brand image, private brands and consumers perceptions toward private brands. Also in an attempt to meet the main research objective, the other areas (sub-objectives of this research study) such as  consumers attitudes preferences, brand loyalty, brand awareness toward private brands and positioning strategies of private brands have been rigorously discussed, which will provide full support to this research study. Chapter 4 (Discussion): This chapter discusses the results of the research, in particular, presenting statements made by informants with regards to themes that emerged from the transcripts. The chapter ends with a summary taking into account the exploratory nature of the research, and the importance of insight. Chapter 5 (Conclusion Recommendations): This chapter deals the conclusion of the present research study. It will be presented in light of research findings from Chapter 4. By referring to existing literature the discussion will highlight major findings in conjunction to identity development. At the end of the chapter, recommendations for further research will be given. Literature Review As Americans, the word â€Å"Euro† is believed to mean glamorous or exciting. For  Europeans it turned out to be a term they associated with business, currency, and  commerce. Renaming the park â€Å"Disneyland Paris† was a way of identifying it with one of the most romantic and exciting cities in the world (Eisner). Culture 500-700 Layers of culture 200 Cultural studies Cross cultural management 500-600 Importance of hrm in a cross cultural context International Business and importance of CCM Importance of culture in a international context 500 Theoretical background : Hofstedes diemsions of culture 1300 Case 1100 Reasons 1000 Discussion :using hotsedes dimensions explaining differences cross continents and cultures 2000 Conclusion 600-700 limitations of the study, limitations of hofsteds model American business leaders often assume that physical distance is the only gulf that needs to be bridged in international commerce. (473 pg1. last line) As a matter of fact bridging this gap is just one of the steps in international business. It is much more complicated and a number of factors need to be kept in mind. According to Adler (1986:13)in 473 it is the lack of academic interrogations by cultural scholars that has lead to ‘American parochialism Culture Culture is an umbrella word that encompasses a whole set of implicit, widely shared beliefs, traditions, values and expectations that characterize a particular group of people(Consumer behaviour in travel and tourism By Abraham Pizam, Yoel Mansfeld, p393). There are as many definitions of culture as there are people who have tried to define it. While some phrase it in terms of ‘metal programs others define it as the characteristics a person possesses. Hofstede (1994) defines culture as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another (p. 180). While according to Kroeber and Parsons, culture is transmitted and created content and patterns of values, ideas and other symbolically meaningful systems as factor in the shaping of human behaviour and the artifacts produced through behaviour(pdf 473 page 2) According to Schein culture is ‘A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. Organizational Culture Leadership by Edgar H Schein October 1996. According to Schein Culture exists at three levels, artifacts, exposed values and basic assumptions. Pizam (1993) also believes that there are levels of culture in the society. Firms and organizations are a part of the society/system and thus culture has an impact on them. Pizam argues that organizations are culture-bound, rather than being culture-free (Pizam, 1993: p. 219)-MMp2 Today there is growing importance of culture in cross border interactions. The role of human resources is very crucial as well. Effective human resource decisions and cultural sensitivity form two pillars for the success of an international business venture. The phrase ‘Cross cultural management was first coined by †¦in the year†¦. There are examples of companies who failed due to HRs ignorance and cultural miscalculations. Theoretical background:- Hofstedes Dimensions Cultural dimensions by halls,trompenars, hofstedes, globe study. Although there are many criticisms to the Hofsteds model and his dimensions yet there is no other study that compares so many other national cultures in so much detail . Simply this is the best there is. ( Mead chapter 2: pg 51) As international business is becoming critically important in this world of globalization, so is the need to understand cultures and people across nations. There is a lot of focus on cultural studies and plenty of research is done in this area still there is a lot of scope for further studies due to gaps in research. Today there are several models which help understand how people from different nations are expected to act, the one by Geert Hofstede has become the most influential (Hong, Zhang Stump 2007, p. 60) Hofstedes Dimensions of national culture- Power Distance Index (PDI): Large versus Small power distance The basis for this dimension is the fact that inequality exists at all levels and areas of the society. Inequality exists in areas such as wealth, social status, power and prestige. The word ‘power distance is taken from the work of Mulder (Reference hofstede p71). According to Mulders Power Distance Reduction theory, subordinated try to reduce the gap in power between them and their superiors. On the other hand the superiors try to maintain or increase the power distance. The PDI norm deals with the desirability or undesirability of dependence versus independence in society (Hofstede p. 93). Power distance is described as the degree to which there is unequal distribution of power in a society. This is accepted by the members of a society, organizations and nations which are less or more powerful. Behaviour of members of such institution is affected by the degree of power they posses. A high power distance index is characterized by hierarchical orders, close supervision, autocratic decision making and unequal distribution of power. Everybody has a place in the system which needs no clarification or justification. According to Hofstedes dimensions, Malaysia has the highest score on power distance (104) thus implying that the management would use a top-down information flow and there would be autocratic and paternalistic decision making. In a low PDI society, subordinates with the senior management together make decisions and have strong work ethics. It is characterised by equal distribution of power. Sweden is low on PDI (31)Individualism versus Collectivism (IDV) It deals with how members of a society view themselves compared to the rest of the society and is measured from completely collective (0) to completely individualistic (100). Individualism stands for a preference for a loosely knit social framework in society wherein individuals are supposed to take care of themselves and their immediate families only. Collectivism, on the other hand, stands for a preference for a tightly knit social framework in which individuals can expect their relatives, clan, or other in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (it will be clear that the word collectivism is not used here to describe any particular political system). Hofstedes own definition is:Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between the individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which throughout peoples lifetimes continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. † Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 76 The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among individuals: an extremely fundamental issue, regarding all societies in the world. It relates to peoples self-concept: T or we Thus, typical traits of countries scoring high on individualism is a frequent use of the word I (in comparison to emitting it, like in Spanish), tendency to live in small households and the expectation on people to have personal opinions on most matters. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were USA (91), Australia (90) and Great Britain (89) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Guatemala (6), Ecuador (8) and Panama (11) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, pp. 78-79). Masculinity (MAS) versus Femininity Masculinity stands for a preference in society for achievement, heroism,assertiveness, and material success. Its opposite, Femininity, stands for a preference for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak, and the quality of life. Hofstedes definition goes as follows; â€Å"A society is called masculine when emotional gender roles are clearly distinct: men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap; both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. †Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 120 Masculinity versus Femininity (MAS) is somewhat unluckily named, since the name tends to give people associations with highly political matters although the dimension doesnt deal with those. A better name might have been Gender role stability, since this is what the dimension actually deals with. This fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the way in which a society allocates social (as opposed to biological) roles to the sexes. Some societies strive for maximum social differentiation between the sexes. The norm is then that men are given the more outgoing, assertive roles and women the caring, nurturing roles. As in all societies most institutions are populated by men. Such maximum-social-differentiation societies will permeate their institutions with an assertive mentality. Such societies become performance societies evident even from the values of their women. these societies are referred to as masculine. (In the English language, male and female are used for the biological distinctions between the sexes; masculine and feminine for the social distinction. A man can be feminine, but he cannot be female. ) Other societies strive for minimal social differentiation between the sexes. This means that some women can take assertive roles if they want to but especially that some men can take relationship-oriented, modest, caring roles if they want to. Even in these societies, most institutions are populated by men (maybe slightly less than in masculine societies). The minimum-social-differentiation societies in comparison with their opposite, the maximum-social-differentiation societies, will permeate their institutions with a caring, quality-of-life orientated mentality. Such societies become welfare societies in which caring for all members, even the weakest, is an important goat for men as well as women. such societies are referred to as feminine. Masculine and feminine are relative qualifications: they express the relative frequency of values which in principle are present in both types of societies. The fact that even modern societies can be differentiated on the basis of the way they allocate their social sex role is not surprising in the light of anthropological research on non-literate, traditional societies in which the social sex role allocation is always one of the essential variables. Like the Individualism-Collectivism dimension, the Masculinity-Femininity dimension relates to peoples self-concept: who am l and what is my task in life? MAS is the only dimension where there are systematic differences between the biological genders in how they answer. The difference is correlated with two factors; age (older people tend to score more on the feminine side) and how masculine the country is overall (in feminine cultures both genders tend to score equally, whereas men score much higher than women in masculine cultures) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). Masculinity is represented by the high end of the scale. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were Japan (95), Austria (79) and Venezuela (73) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Sweden (5), Norway (8) and the Netherlands (14). (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, pp. 120-121). Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) Uncertainty Avoidance is the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. This feeling leads them to beliefs promising certainty and to maintaining institutions protecting conformity. Strong Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain rigid codes of belief and behaviour and are intolerant towards deviant persons and ideas. They try to minimize the possibility of unstructured situations (situations that are novel, unknown, surprising, and different from usual) by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; there can only be one Truth and we have it. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. Weak Uncertainty Avoidance societies maintain a more relaxed atmosphere in which practice counts more than principles and deviance is more easily tolerated. They are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions The UAI deals with how people within a given culture handle anxiety. It needs to be stressed that UAI is not the same as risk avoidance risk is focused on something specific whereas UAI deals with the unspecific general. The definition of UAI is â€Å"the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations† (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 167). The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is how a society reacts on the fact that time only runs one way and that the future is unknown: whether it tries to control the future or to let it happen. Like Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance has consequences for the way people build their institutions and organizations. Typical of countries with high UAI is a need for written and unwritten rules. The three highest scoring countries in the original study were Greece (112), Portugal (104) and Guatemala (101) whereas the lowest scoring countries were Singapore (8), Jamaica (13) and Denmark (23) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus Short-Term Orientation This fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars. It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting ones face. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B. C. ; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage. The dimension was defined by Hofstede as:â€Å" Long-term orientation (LTO) stands for the fostering of virtues oriented toward future rewards in particular, perseverance and thrift. Its opposite pole, short-term orientation, stands for, the fostering of virtues related to the past and present in particular, respect for tradition, preservation of â€Å"face†, and fulfilling social obligations. † Hofstede Hofstede, 2005, p. 210 Cultures that score high on LTO tend to have so called Confucian values and not surprisingly the three highest scoring countries in the Bond-Hofstede study were China (118), Hong Kong (96) and Taiwan (87). The lowest scoring countries were Pakistan (0), Nigeria (16) and the Philippines (19) (Hofstede Hofstede, 2005). The case of Euro Disney Its first of Walt Disneys theme park, Disneyland, opened in Anaheim, California, in 1955. The Anaheim Park was an instantaneous success. The success story repeated itself with the opening of the theme park in Florida in 1970s, and with Tokyo Disneyland in Japan in 1983. Japans success made the corporates believe that they knew everything about opening a theme park in another country and making it a success. So, in 1992, they turned to Paris, the self-proclaimed capital of European high culture and style. Paris was chosen out of 200 locations around the world because of its demographics and the subsidies Walt Disney was offered by the French government. The Greater Paris area  was a high-density population zone (over 10 million) with people who had a relatively high level of disposable income. It also has the ability to attract substantial number of tourists. There was sufficient land available to meet the demand of the park and necessary supply of water and electricity was economical. The French government was very enthusiastic about getting Disney to Paris because they believed that the project would create 30,000 French jobs. They also gave the company more than $1 billion in various incentives. The Walt Disney had tasted nothing but success until 1992. From its very inception, Euro-Disney faced a number of problems. First was the allegation that Euro-Disney was an assault on the French culture. The cause: lack of cultural sensitivity. People looked at it as a symbol of American clichà ©s. The French framers even blocked the entrance with their tractors on the day of its opening. It was evident that the human resource department had done everything possible to ignore the aspects of cultural awareness and had misunderstood the French laws. They overlooked the traditions and habits of the French people when strategizing the park and how it would operate. The ethnocentric recruiting practice was one of their biggest mistakes. If a company follows ethnocentric hiring practices, the employees of a multinational company who are from the home country will be given preference. Following this, Euro-Disney filled all important positions with employees from the home America. The chairman of Euro Disney was an American who was said to have strong ties with France. What they did not realize was the fact that because he had strong ties with France did not mean he thought like the French. Because of this, they went on to implement Euro-Disney without much consideration to local culture. They filed to credit the local employees for their contribution to the initial planning process. Recognizing performance is the basis for building an affinity to the workplace and a sense of belonging. When operating in a culturally different environment, it is important that a company ‘act globally, but think locally. This was Disneys biggest mistake. They refused to acknowledge the fact that Europe and USA were both ‘Western cultures, but starkly different in their cultures. The theme parks in America did not serve any alcohol, but for the French, serving a glass of wine with lunch was a given. While the French culture is feminine in nature, the American is Masculine. Disney assumed that Europeans would not take breakfast and so they downsized the operation, but surprisingly Europeans did want breakfast. More surprising was the fact that did not want the typical French breakfast. They wanted bacon and eggs! Another big problem was the while Disney was successful in hitting the planned 9 million visitors a year mark, the visitors didnt stay for as long as expected. Most stayed for a day or two as opposed to the four to five days that Disney had hoped for. Europeans thought of theme parks as a full day excursion and not as a weekend destination. The company had spent billions of dollars building the luxurious hotels but because people opted for day excursions, the occupancy levels at the hotels were always low. Because of this, Euro-Disneyland had cumulative losses of $2 billion at the end of 1994[1]. Almost everything that Walt Disney had projected for Euro-Disney was the complete opposite of the reality in Europe. A puzzle of errors: miscalculating everything! Here are the factors that led to the downfall of Euro-Disney from the very start. I have discussed these in detail as we move further into the dissertation. Still beset by high costs and low attendances, Euro Disney will find it hard to hit its target of breakeven by the end of September 1996. Costs in the year were reduced by FF 500m by introducing more flexible labour agreements (more part-timers, increased job sharing and the use of more students in the peak season) as well as outsourcing contracts in the hotel operation. But the company admits that the lions share of cost reductions has now been realized. Now it hopes attendances are rising. . . Getting people to spend more once they are at the park might be more difficult. Euro Disney is pinning its hopes on economic recovery in Europe. Itll have to start paying interest, management fees and royalties again in five years time. Management will not say whether itll be able to cope then. 1 â€Å"Euro Disney,† Financial Times Lex column, 30 October 1996(14ED) 1. Miscalculation of drinking habits. Misunderstanding French drinking habits was a serious problem faced by Euro Disney. The management decided to continue with their policy of not serving alcohol in their theme park. Though it worked well in other places but the same did not hold true for Euro Disney. It rather proved to be disastrous because a French meal is incomplete without a wine. Wine is an essential part of the French Culture and is famous all over the world. This miscalculation became a cause of astonishment and consequently the company had to change its policy and serve alcohol. 2. Misunderstanding of breakfast and food norms. Disneys fault of ignoring the cultural differences in food made them commit another blunder. Disney believed that like Americans French would also prefer snacks and hence they downsized their restaurants. This proved to be a wrong decision because French preferred to sit down and eat complete meals rather than carrying away snacks in their hand like Americans. In fact, the data shows that they were trying to serve 2,500 breakfasts in a 350-seat restaurant at some of the hotels. Further, guests wanted bacon and eggs rather than just coffee and croissants (Burgoyne, 1995). This difference between the companys thinking and the actual French culture lead to long lines in front of the restaurants and on top of it when French were denied wine it complicated the matter even further and on the whole French did not have a pleasant â€Å"Disney experience†. 3. Misunderstanding of vacation habits. The Walt Disneys thinking of Americanize European habits put them into another trouble. The company miscalculated the vacation time because the Europeans preferred few longer holidays in comparison with the Americans who took several short breaks. So the companys theory of Americanizing brought loss to them. 4. Miscalculation of per-capita spending. Insufficient market research lead to miscalculation of the per capita spending by the visitors at the park. While the Americans and Japanese who never left the park empty handed, the Europeans did. The European visitors wanted to spend more time on the rides rather than shopping for food and souvenirs which resulted in lower expected revenue. As a matter of Fact spending was about 12% less than predicted. [ ] 5. Miscalculation of transportation preferences. There was a big miscalculation in the transport preferences which was again due to the non- understanding of the differences in the American and the European culture. While availability of boats, trams and trains proved to be beneficial  to carry visitors in America from their hotels to the park but with the Europeans this was not the case. Most of the Europeans preferred to walk . Also, as per the calculation it was assumed that most of the Europeans would travel by their own vehicles and hence a lot of parking space was allotted for the cars. Whereas most of the Europeans came by buses and bicycles and the facilities for the bus drivers to park their buses and the rest came out be inadequate and as a result the company was forced to reduce the space for parking lots and provide more space for the buses and the bicycles. 6. Misunderstanding of French labor laws. 7. Violation of French labor law. 8. Miscalculation of risk factor 9. Incorrect global staffing policies and hr orientations :Ethnocentric and polycentric 2. Misunderstanding French traditions and habits: celebrating Halloween instead of French festivals. 3. Nationalistic sentiments of  French people: Change in name from Euro Disney to Disneyland Paris 4. Staffing and training problems 5. Rigid Disney dress code 6. Operational errors 7. Labour costs 8. Labour disputes 9. communication problems 10. cultural operational issues Power distance  · Incorrect global staffing policies and hr orientations: Ethnocentric and polycentric The French were confused when Disney appointed mostly American-born managers into the front-line supervisory positions at Euro Disneyland many of whom were not fluent in the French language. Individualism  · Rigid Disney dress code  · threatening highly individualistic French cultural traditions Individualism is the cultural dimension that measures to what extent people to look after themselves and their immediate family members only Americas individualism score of 91 is the highest in the world. Frances score of 71 is also high, 65% more than t

Comparison between the Great Gatsby and Macbeth Essay

Macbeth is one of Shakespeare’s most intense plays and one his most complex psychological studies. It is also a play about which there is a great deal of historical background, which I think you’ll find interesting because it reveals Shakespeare’s creative process. The play was written in 1605–1606. It’s one of the plays where the date is pretty firmly established by internal references to external events, and most scholars have agreed on the date. Shakespeare was at the height of creative powers, and his theatrical company, the King’s Men, was the official royal acting company. He had the large Globe Theater, a large public playhouse on the south bank of the Thames. He would soon open the Blackfriars Theater, a small private theater within the city itself where the plays were performed indoors, and he and his men performed often at the court for the king and his family. The Blackfriars Theater would be exempt from the law prohibiting theaters within the City of London by being a private club. It could accommodate only a couple of hundred people, opposed to the Globe audiences of a couple of thousand, and therefore Shakespeare charged a higher price for entry. That in turn meant that the audience was wealthier and more sophisticated than the average attendee at the Globe was. Because the plays were performed indoors by artificial light, they could be done at any time or weather. Because it was a smaller theater, the acting style used could be more subtle and understated than the broad, overly dramatic acting used in the Globe before audiences of several thousand. As far as we know Shakespeare’s company continue to perform all the plays in both theaters; it’s just that the productions would have differed in the way they were performed. Once you know something of the complex historical background, a very curious fact emerges about this bloody, violent drama: the story of this psychotic killer and his fiendlike wife was actually written as a tribute to Shakespeare’s royal patron, King James I of England, who was also king of Scotland. What an unusual way to thank the king for his patronage! Of all of his plays, this is a powerful suspense thriller. We may know who the killer is, but we are fascinated to see if Macbeth gets away with it and to see how he convinces himself to commit the multiple homicides. The historical background is necessary to help you understand why Shakespeare wrote the play the way he did. Without the background there are many passages and references which make no sense to a modern audience. This background also reveals the fascinating way Shakespeare used and twisted history to make a better play and to address the political agenda of King James. It also shows some of the things going on at that time in English society and politics. Macbeth is an openly political play. Macbeth is considered a history play, based on the events in the life of a real historical figure, but it is even more a powerful tragedy. Shakespeare played fast and loose with historical fact in all his history plays, but none more so than this play. When Shakespeare wrote a play like Richard III, he was writing about events that had taken place about 100 years before, so most people in his English audience had a general sense of what that time was like. In the case of Macbeth, he was writing about a time over 500 years in the past in a country about which most of his English audience was totally unfamiliar. Shakespeare and his audience did not consider history to be a science, in which the goal was accuracy; rather history was an art, related to storytelling. The purpose of history was to make a moral point about the present society. You looked to the past to find or create parallels with the present age that would help you explain how people should behave right now. Therefore history was often manipulated, changed or simply created to support some political agenda. Every king at this time used history as a tool in his arsenal to help hang on to power. They would hire professional historians to rewrite the past to support their claim to power in the present. Similarly, religious figures would use history as a weapon to attack their opponents. In many accounts written at this time by Protestant advocates, history is seen as the rise of many proto-Protestants, people who lived hundreds of years before Martin Luther, the first official Protestant. These earlier figures are shown to be forerunners who simply didn’t realize they were Protestants. The historical sources that Shakespeare used were as much mythologies as they  are reality. Actually there was very little known about the historical Macbeth, so if the historians hadn’t made things up they wouldn’t have had much to say about him. Shakespeare’s principal source, Holinshed’s Chronicles of Scottish History, was a loose collection of gossip, tales and fantasies, so the material he was using was already seriously flawed from a historical perspective. Shakespeare then used this flawed material selectively, not telling the whole story, but only bits and pieces that made for a good drama. He altered historical records to heighten dramatic effect, as we’ll see in the dramatic account of Macbeth’s first murder. Shakespeare also changed history to simplify complexities and, quite frankly, to kiss up to King James. Shakespeare took a story supposedly set in the 11th Century, around the year 1050, and filled it with many references to events taking place in 1605 in England, in particular to one of the most dramatic events in English history, the Gunpowder Plot, which had happened just the year before. No wonder the play bears little resemblance to the historical reality. The historical Macbeth had become king in the year 1040 when he killed the previous king, Duncan, in battle. To put this in a historical context, this is hardly the Middle Ages; it’s still the Dark Ages, as historians have termed the various stages of European history. It is 26 years before the Norman invasion of England, which is generally considered to be the beginning of the medieval period in Britain. In 1040 Macbeth became king and ruled for 17 years until he was overthrown and killed by Duncan’s son, who became King Malcolm III. Malcolm is famous primarily because he married an English princess named Margaret who was later made a saint. According to the Scottish historian Archibald Duncan, little is known about Macbeth and his lovely wife Grunnich, except that they were pious and endowed a religious house at St. Andrew’s (which is probably the caddy shack on the fourth green of that famous golf course — joke). The couple went on a religious pilgrimage to Rome where, the chroniclers said, â€Å"they sowed money like seed.† (Many of us when we go on vacation do the same thing.) That’s all we know for certain about the real Macbeth. Now the fact that Macbeth killed the previous king was not a big deal. Of  the eight Scottish kings who ruled during this time, seven had died unnatural deaths, including several who burned to death until suspicious circumstances. It was highly unusual for a Scottish king to die of natural causes in bed. This violent record was largely the result of how Scottish kings came to power. There was no fixed process of succession from one king to the next. In effect, when an old king died every male who was related to the royal family, no matter how distant the relationship, had an equal chance for the throne. It was a kind of royal free-for-all with the last man standing getting to be the king until he was done in by the next ambitious claimant. Macbeth is overthrown in 1057, still nine years before the Norman French invasion of England under William the Conqueror. Two hundred years pass by. The Norman kings are on the throne of England. A succession of English kings and queens has tried to extend their power north into Scotland, as generations of Scots have raided English settlements to the south. The warfare between these two historic enemies is almost constant. In the mid-1200’s the English king Edward, also known as Longshanks and the Scots Killer, has invaded Scotland determined to subjugate it once and for all. He pushes north and reaches the holy place of Scone where the Scottish kings were crowned. Here he seizes the holy relic called the Stone of Scone and takes it back to London where he places it under his throne at Westminster Abbey, where it remained for seven centuries, despite the efforts of Scottish nationalists to steal it back. (Prime Minister Tony Blair finally returned the stone to Scotland after his election — a smart political move.) The film Braveheart gives you a highly dramatic sense of the conflict at this time between the Scots and the English. The Scots fight back unsuccessfully because they are not united in their efforts. Finally one man arises who is able to weld the Scottish people into a single nation, Robert the Bruce, and he is able to lead to a Scottish victory. The English have to acknowledge the right of the Scottish State to exist. King Edward is bitterly disappointed and when he dies, he leaves instructions that if England ever mounts a new invasion of Scotland, his bones are to be carried at the head of the army. So you see how bitter the hatred is between the two nations. Under Robert the Bruce the Scots succeed in driving the English out, but in 1329 he dies and his daughter ascends the throne. She had married a guy who was like the business manager or steward of the royal estates. Not surprisingly the guy’s name was â€Å"Steward† or as it came to be spelled, â€Å"Stuart.† And so the Scottish throne passed on to this obscure family that had never been more than civil servants. Now every royal family worried about two things: succession, or who would inherit the throne. Henry VIII had gone through five wives trying to sire a male heir to the throne and broken with the Catholic Church over the issue. The second worry was to try and keep the crown within the family against attacks on their legitimacy. So kings were always seeking ways to bolster their claim on the throne in the perception of the people. The family of Elizabeth, the Tudors, had had on-going problems in both these areas. The first Tudor, Henry VII, lost his oldest s on soon after the boy had been married to Catherine of Aragon. So as not to have to return her substantial dowry to the King of Spain, Henry VII simply married the young widow to his next son, Henry VIII, setting in motion all the turmoil of that king’s five wives. Henry’s son Edward died while still in his teens, and his daughter, who reigned as â€Å"Bloody Mary Tudor,† was unable to produce an heir. The next Tudor monarch, Elizabeth I, declined to try to have a child by refusing to marry. Her decision caused all kinds of political problems as she approached death in 1603, until she declared on her deathbed that her distant cousin, James VI of Scotland, would rule after her. The Stuart kings, by contrast, had been very prolific. By the time Shakespeare wrote Macbeth, there had been eight generations of Stuart kings on the throne of Scotland. They were the longest-surviving royal family in all of Europe. They boasted that they would remain on the throne until Doomsday. However, the Stuarts continued to worry about the public perception of their legitimacy. After all the original Stuart king had had little claim to the throne. So it was that in the early 1500’s one of the Stuart kings hired a professional historian and ordered him to create an older, more respectable connection to the throne for the Stuarts. This historian made up an ancient ancestor of the Stuarts, Banquo, who lived clear back in the time of old King Macbeth. This Banquo, a thane or nobleman, was told by goddesses of Scottish destiny that his descendents would eventually become kings of Scotland. These goddesses were  given special powers to look into the future of the Scottish nation. So the Stuarts had a mystical claim on the throne for several hundred years before they actually were crowned. This Banquo was a completely fictional character that the historian/PR guy simply made up. Not surprisingly this character and the prediction of his descendant’s rise to power figure prominently in the play. Queen Elizabeth’s grandfather, Henry VII, had used history in just the same manipulative manner. After he defeated and killed the rightful king, Richard III, in 1485, he hired a number of â€Å"professional† historians to do a hatchet job on poor old Richard. They â€Å"proved† that he was not the legitimate king and was in fact a monster who deserved to die so the Tudors could take power. In the mid-1500’s Scotland was ruled by Mary, Queen of Scots, a distant cousin of Elizabeth I. Mary has come down in history as a kind of romantic figure, but in reality she was not nearly as sympathetic. She was a Catholic trying to rule a land that was fiercely Presbyterian, and she was not very adept at the politics of power. Plus she had the unfortunate habit of blowing up the castles where her estranged husband was staying. She was finally driven out of Scotland and fled to England where she was given asylum by Elizabeth. Rather than being content and grateful for her cousin’s kindness, she began almost immediately plotting with malcontents to overthrow Elizabeth. She let it be known that if the Catholic minority in England was able to get rid of the queen, she would graciously accept the crown. Elizabeth tried to ignore the threats and then tried to confine Mary in an isolated country home where she could cause less trouble. But Mary persisted in her plots. Finally Elizabeth is forced to stop Mary’s intrigues by having her beheaded Now when Mary fled from Scotland she left her infant son, James, and he was crowned James VI and ruled throughout his childhood. Poor James was manipulated and used by the powerful men who had custody of the young king. He learned to be very slippery and deceitful in order to survive to adulthood. In one of the great ironies of history, when Elizabeth faces  death she bequeaths the English throne to the son of her mortal enemy, Mary, Queen of Scots. James was finally able to escape from Edinburgh and the clutches of the Presbyterian elders and go to the sinful city of London, the Las Vegas of that age. In 1603 James is crowned James I of England and becomes a dual monarch. A few months later he names Shakespeare’s company the King’s Men, the royal dramatic company. The company has royal protection from local authorities and they make a great of money performing all the plays Shakespeare had written for the court. It’s no wonder that Shakespeare felt compelled to write a tribute to his royal patron, Macbeth. As I said earlier, it’s an odd play to be a tribute to a Scottish king, but then Shakespeare made a career out of doing the unusual. Now as Shakespeare pays tribute to James, he also wants to support James’ political agenda. England and Scotland had been historic enemies, but now they were governed by the same monarch, and he wanted to unite them into a single kingdom. In several plays written before 1603 Shakespeare used the Scots as convenient ethnic targets. (We see this Scots-bashing in Merchant of Venice and Henry V.) After 1603 it became politically incorrect to take potshots at the Scots. Although James and the other Stuarts wanted a United Kingdom, it would take over 100 years for England and Scotland to merge into a single political entity. To advance the king’s agenda, Shakespeare wrote the play in a certain way. He created and emphasized commonality between the two kingdoms. He was also careful not to show Banquo, the king’s mythical ancestor, in a bad light. Rather than being actively involved in overthrowing King Duncan, Banquo just stands around and waits for Fate to fulfill the prophecy of his family’s future greatness. (In Holinshed’s account Banquo had been an active participant in Duncan’s overthrow and death.) Having set up the story of the Stuart family’s rise to power, Shakespeare shift gears and makes the homicidal maniac Macbeth the protagonist of the play. The other political event which shaped the composition of the play was the criminal conspiracy to assassinate James, his family and most of the Protestant leadership of England in the Gunpowder Plot. This took place in early November of 1605, when a group of Catholic extremists planned to blow  up the Houses of Parliament on the occasion of a speech by the king to Parliament. There had been a long history of hostility between the Catholics and Protestants in England through the 1500’s, especially during the time of Elizabeth. Catholics considered her an illegitimate ruler and a bastard because she was the child of King Henry VIII’s second wife, after the illegal divorce. The film Elizabeth, with Cate Blanchett, gives you a good sense of the conflict in this time with the Catholic side being represented by the Pope and Queen Mary. By contrast with Catholic intransigence, Elizabeth is shown to be much more humane and tolerant. She had seen too much bloodshed over religious differences. She did not much mind what people’s private beliefs were as long as they avoided public display of religious heresies. So under Elizabeth it was not illegal to be a Catholic, unlike Mary Tudor’s persecution of Protestant dissenters; it was just illegal to perform a Catholic mass in public. Understandably Catholics chafed under the restrictions of Elizabeth’s rule and believed that a strong Catholic monarch could bring England forcibly back to the Catholic faith. When Elizabeth died in 1603 many Catholics hoped their persecution would end with James. After all, his own mother had been a Catholic. However, that belief ignored the fact that James had been raised as a Presbyterian, not a Catholic. Also he found Elizabeth’s principle of allowing private faith a good compromise. And so the more militant Catholics plotted to fill the basement of Parliament with gunpowder and at the critical moment blow i t up. Now this plot was the 17th Century equivalent of 9/11 or the harebrained scheme of Timothy McVey to blow up the federal building in Oklahoma City. The plot was discovered at the last minute. According to the official account released at the time the king himself, with the help of God, covered the plan. He was shown some intercepted messages which referred to â€Å"strike a blow† for the cause and realized that â€Å"blow† could mean an explosion and ordered the building searched. The effect of the discovery on England was electric, traumatic. In a flash the country realized how close they had come to disaster. As the conspirators were arrested, tortured, confessed and were executed more details came out. English society was changed in ways that are still visible today. For example to this day on November 5, the day the plot was discovered, called Guy Fawkes Day, children throughout  Britain collect money in the neighborhood to buy fireworks to set off and burn a wooden effigy called â€Å"the Old Guy† in honor of Guy Fawkes, one of the principal conspirators. The revelation of the plot did not ease the pl ight of Catholics, who were forbidden the vote or the ability to serve in Parliament. One of the other conspirators turned out to be a secret Jesuit priest named Henry Garnett. Although it was illegal to perform the mass, the Jesuits recruited young courageous English Catholics, trained them in France and smuggled them back into England to perform as priests. Garnett was the confessor of several of the other conspirators and he was detained in the initial investigation. The authorities suspected he was a priest and they asked him under oath if he knew anything about the plot. He denied any knowledge. Subsequent suspects were arrested and they revealed that Garnett had known about the plan and had advised the conspirators on what to do. He was arrested again, questioned and this time he admitted that he did know about the plot. When confronted with his earlier perjury under oath, Garnett explained that as a Jesuit he was not required to tell the authorities what they wanted to know. In defense of his own faith he had not lied under oath; he had simply equivocated. That simply meant he had not told the whole truth and had played fast and loose with the terminology, a lot like a former president testifying under a threat of impeachment. This aspect of the scandal was in some respects the most shocking for the public because he seemed to cast the Jesuits as sneaky, lying shock troops of the Pope who would commit any sin to further their own cause. And so the concept of â€Å"equivocation† became infamous, a kind of shorthand reference to the evil behind the plot. It was so shocking that the legal oath Englishmen took when they testified in court was changed at that time to include the provision that the oath was taken â€Å"without equivocation† to cover any future Garnetts. That provision continued in the English legal system down to the twentieth century. Both the celebration of Guy Fawkes Day and the legal oath demonstrate how traumatic the Gunpowd er Plot was on English society. A lot of popular works were written at this time which refer to the details of the plot, including at least three plays called Gunpowder dramas. One was called The Whore of Babylon all about the Pope leading a black mass to call  forth Satan to engineer the assassination of Queen Elizabeth. The second play was called The Devil’s Charter which traces the efforts of the evils Catholics to engineer the assassination of an English ruler. The third play was Macbeth, according to noted author Garry Wills. In the plays the Jesuits are linked to witchcraft. This was not the first attempt on King James’ life; he had survived three earlier assassination attempts. (One reason James may have been able to uncover the plot so quickly is that he had had lots of experience,) The would-be assassins were subsequently tried as witches. In another related case a plot was uncovered to kill James’ bride, a princess of Denmark. A group of accused witches from a town called Forres, mentioned in the play, had disapproved of James marrying a foreigner, and so the charmed the winds and caused a major storm on the North Sea to try and sink the ship bringing the Danish bride to Scotland. As in the other cases the plotters were arrested, tortured, confessed and were executed. As a result of his experiences and his own interest in the occult, James fancied himself an expert and had written a book called Daemonology, all about Scottish witches. In the first two Gunpowder plays listed above it is a male witch that is behind the plots to kill the English monarch. What Shakespeare does in his play is to take the â€Å"goddesses of Scottish destiny† that he had read about in Holinshed and change them into very unusual witches, in keeping with the interest of the principal person for whom he was writing the play, King James.

Acars Via Iridium

ACARS via Iridium Iridium is a large satellite constellation that consists of 66 low-earth orbiting (LEO), cross-linked satellites operating as a fully meshed network providing truly global coverage (including oceans, airways and polar regions). Iridium satellites are in a near-polar orbit at an altitude of 485 miles. The network is composed of 66 active satellites that fly in six orbital planes, each with 11 satellites per plane. Satellites circle the earth once every 100 minutes. ACARS is an Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System otherwise known as Digital DataLink System.ACARS was first developed in the 1970’s. It is a point-to-point service that either sends air-to-ground messages or receives ground-to-air messages from the cockpit. ACARS via Iridium now gives Flight Departments the capability to communicate with the aircraft in their fleet all over the globe. ACARS is now a viable option via Iridium. Until now ACARS was only available by 2 different medium s. ACARS via Very High Frequency (VHF) communication is only available through line of site.ACARS via Inmarsat (Satcom) is only available over the populated continents and does not provide communications over polar routes. The cost of Iridium service is far less than that of Satcom and is available over oceans whereas VHF is not. This allows aircraft to access various services provided by ACARS Service Providers. Aircraft can now send a number of automatic reports (OOOI, engine oil pressure, position reports, fuel, and etc) using ACARS via Iridium. Pilots can request relevant information pertaining to flight safety and receive necessary in-flight updates.Some of the data services include: Text-based and Graphical Weather, Flight Planning and Clearances, Text Messaging, Position Reporting, Automatic Terminal Information Services (ATIS), Terminal Weather Information for Pilots (TWIP), and OOOI messages (Out of the gate, Off the ground, On the ground, and Into the gate). New flight saf ety services such as Controller Pilot Data Link Communications (CPDLC) and Future Air Navigation System messaging (FANS) are currently undergoing live tests to help improve flight times and routes for Air Transportation.Typical ACARS messages are only 100 to 200 characters in length. Such messages are made up of a one-block transmission from (or to) the aircraft, constrained to be no more than 220 characters within the body of the message. Iridium’s Short Burst Data Service (SBD) has the network transport capability to transmit short data messages between field equipment and a centralized host computing system. ACARS blocks are 238 bytes maximum; segmenting and distributing them across multiple SBD messages is not necessary. Each ACARS block is encapsulated in a unique SBD message.ACARS requires ARINC-429 Interface, compliant with ARINC 741 characteristics for satellite communication systems. Standardized nature of the ARINC 429 digital data bus allows Satcom Data Unit (SDU) to interface with wide variety of ACARS capable hardware. Air-to-ground messages are originated from the Control Display Unit (CDU), which is located in the cockpit of the aircraft. The pilot will initiate his request through the CDU, where the Data Management Unit (DMU) will pass the ACARS requested message onto the Iridium Satcom Data Unit (SDU).The SDU encapsulates each ACARS block into an SBD message and sends the SBD message to the Iridium gateway. The SBD messages are received by the Iridium gateway, converted back into ACARS blocks, then passed on to the chosen DataLink Service Provider (DSP) through the service provider gateway. Conversely, ground-to-air messages from the data provider are passed through the service provider gateway as ACARS message blocks. Once received by the Iridium gateway, they are encapsulated as SBD messages and delivered to the aircraft.Once the SDU has received an uplink SBD message, it removes SBD-specific information and passes the remaining data to the DMU as an ACARS message block via the ARINC 429 data bus. The DMU then interprets and displays the ACARS data via the CDU. ARINC (Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated) and SITA (Society of International Telecommunications Aeronautics) are the two DSPs available to the airlines. ACARS messaging allows the airlines to identify abnormal flight conditions and automatically send real-time messages to an airline, thereby enabling airlines to improve their aircraft performance.

The Impact Of Hallyu On Korean Plastic Surgery Industry

Hallyu or â€Å"Korean Wave† is the term that first introduced by Beijing journalist in the mid-1990s. This term is associated with the widespread of the popularity of â€Å"all things Korean† beyond the border of Korea (Lie 2012), especially to Asian countries and even non-Asian countries such as North and South American, Middle East and Europe. The â€Å"all things Korean† are inclusive of soap opera (also known as television drama), film, music, fashion, cuisine and other elements. However, there are some widespread cultures have sparked controversial debates, noticeably the issues bound to plastic surgery. Nevertheless, in this essay, I am not going to debate the controversial issues, instead I am going to discuss on how Hallyu has impacted the†¦show more content†¦The culture of acceptance based on appearances is applied to almost every aspect of daily life such as employment, education and others. For instance, in employment sector, candidate is ob ligated to attach a valid photo ID in his or her resume for job application. The attached photo will facilitate the selection process as employer will choose potential employees based on their appearance first and undoubtedly, those who have attractive physical appearances will get the advantage, meanwhile those who not, will be rejected in the first place. This continuous practice will create inequality in society, but at the same time, it facilitates to boost the plastic surgery industry as the demand for plastic surgery increase dramatically. People will either voluntarily or involuntarily undergo plastic surgery in order to improve their beauty, so that they will not be marginalized and have the chance to grab every opportunity that exists in the society. Initially, Korean society has condemning plastic surgery as an alternative to improve beauty. However, as time passes by, plastic surgery has been accepted as a norm in Korean society and it can be said that almost every Korean has undergone it at least once. According to the statistic of the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery (ISAPS), by 2005, it is estimated that approximately 20,000 per 100,000 of general population in South Korea has undergone plastic surgeryShow MoreRelatedEffects Of Hallyu On Korean And Korean Wave1602 Words   |  7 PagesHallyu or â€Å"Korean Wave† is the term that was first introduced by Beijing journalist in the mid-1990s. This term is associated with the widespread of popularity of â€Å"all things Korean† beyond the border of Korea (Lie 2012), especially to Asian countries and even non-Asian countries such as North and South American, Middle East and Europe. The â€Å"all things Korean† are inclusive of soap opera (also known as television drama), film, music, fashion, cuisine and other elements. However, there are some widespreadRead MoreInternational Tourism s Effect On Medical Tourism1649 Words   |  7 PagesIn this paper, I will eva luate Hallyu in regards to its effect on medical tourism. However, I will first define the terms in order to give a clearer picture of what is Hallyu and which medical tourism I am referring too. Hallyu is defined as the growing popularity of Korean-based products that include drama, film, and pop music (Kim). It is also used to describe the fast spreading popularity of Korean culture like food, clothing, and housing. Recently, Hallyu or Korean Wave has not just swept overRead MoreThe Effects Of Plastic Surgery On South Korea786 Words   |  4 Pages3.2 Plastic Surgery Other industries like dancing school (Figure 8), fashioning boutiques and Spa (Figure 9), wedding photography (Figure 10) and plastic surgery (Figure 11) have also boosted by the Korean wave. Among these industries, the plastic surgery is particularly prominent. Figure 8: Dancing School in South Korea Figure 9: Fashioning Boutiques in South Korea Figure 10: Wedding Photography in Korean Style Figure 11: Korean Plastic Surgery As the Korean wave becomingRead MoreConsumer Lifestyle in Singapore35714 Words   |  143 Pagesrecorded in 2010 and up significantly from S$2.7 billion in 2009. The growth rate of the import-reliant economy was affected by external factors, including the slowing economic growth in China, the sluggish growth of the US economy and fears about the impact of the eurozone crisis. These factors have also affected growth in 2012. Economists   at   the   Trade   Ministry   have   said   that   they   expect   Singapore’s   GDP   to   grow   by    about 1.5% in 2012, down from a previous estimate of 2.5%. A recent report